Mine Creek Battlefield

Uss Merrimack

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Designed by Chief Naval Constructor John Lenthall in 1854, the USS Merrimack (often incorrectly spelled Merrimac) was the first of a new class of steam frigate in the US Navy to be driven by a screw propeller. Built and launched at Boston on June 15,1855, and commissioned February 20,1856, she was named for the river that flows south through New Hampshire and then eastward across northeastern Massachusetts before emptying in the Atlantic at Newburyport, Massachusetts. Also designed by Lenthall, her sister ships were the frigates Wabash, Minnesota, Colorado, and Roanoke. All five vessels were considered to be superior to any warship in the world when launched. A ship of 4,636 tons, the Merrimack was 2?5 feet from prow to stern, with a beam of 51 feet 4 inches and draft of 24 feet 3 inches. Considered a good sailing ship, her two horizontal, double piston rod, condensing engines made at the Cold Springs Foundry, New York, were designed for auxiliary use only. She was armed with 40 guns which consisted of 14 8in., 24 9in., and two 10in. smoothbore cannon. She had a complement of 519 men.

During initial trials along the East Coast, mechanical failures occurred that were to plague her whole career. On her fourth day out on a cruise from Norfolk to Havana in 1855, the Merrimack's propeller broke. Returning to Key West, she lost her rudder and had to be towed into harbor. She was subsequently towed back to Boston for repairs. Other defects noted by her crew included a tendency to roll heavily in the sea and the fact that her boilers overheated when under pressure.

Under Kentucky-born Garrett J. Pendergrast, she embarked on her maiden cruise to the Caribbean and

Western Europe in 1856 through 185? visiting Southampton, Brest, Lisbon, and Toulon. Returning to Boston, she was decommissioned for repairs on April 22, 185?. Recommissioned on September 1, 185?, she was next assigned as flagship to the Pacific Squadron from 185? until November 1859. Rounding Cape Horn, she conducted a cruise of the Pacific coast of South and Central America until ordered home on November 14, 1859. Upon returning to the Gosport Navy Yard at Norfolk, Virginia, on February 16,1860, her engines were condemned, and the ship was put into ordinary for major refitting and repair. With the threat of secession looming in Virginia, Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles became concerned for the safety of Federal vessels and property at the Gosport Navy Yard, and ordered Commander James Alden to Norfolk to take command of the Merrimack and remove her to the Philadelphia Navy Yard. Engineer in Chief B. F. Isherwood was also ordered there to repair the engines. Presented with difficulties by pro-Southern naval officers, who persuaded Commodore Charles S. McCauley, commanding the Navy Yard, not to allow Merrimack to escape, Alden abandoned his mission, and all but the hull of the vessel was destroyed by fire as Federal authorities abandoned Norfolk on April 20, 1861. (Author's collection]

orders for work to commence on July 11,1862. Later that month, the Confederate Congress appropriated $170,000 to fund the project.

The work of transforming the Merrimack into the Virginia began by cutting her down to the old berth deck, which was within 3lA feet of her waterline. The lower half of the hull was then copper sheathed, and both the 29-foot-long bow and the fan tail stern extending 66 feet, were covered over with 1-inch-thick iron plate. Both the bow and stern were to be awash once the ship was completed and in fighting trim. A casemate, or roof, of pitch pine and oak, 24 inches thick and inclining at an angle of 36 degrees, was erected along the 170 feet of the midship section of the hull. This

This lithograph of the Merrimack in dry dock at the Gosport Navy Yard being converted into an "iron battery" renamed Virginia was produced in 1906 by G. S. Richardson. (Naval Historical Foundation photo NH 58712)

extended from the waterline to a height over the gun deck of 7 feet. Both ends of this shielded roof structure were rounded so that pivot guns could be used as bow and stern chasers. An additional course of 1-inch-thick iron plate extended 3 feet from the deck to a depth of 3 feet below the waterline around the entire vessel. The lack of sufficient protection below the waterline, especially when the vessel was lightened through expenditure of shot and coal, was later to prove a major design weakness in battle on March 9, 1862.

Employed by the US government in the Gosport Navy Yard, and compelled to either "starve or to serve the Confederates" by "cutting down and fitting up" the Merrimack, a head workman named Mr Diggs recalled that "her roofing consisted first of 15-inch rafters, of 10-inch thickness, and lying close side by side. Across these, lying fore-and-aft, was a roofing of 5-inch pine plank. Next came four inches of oak plank, up and down. This made a roof of two feet thickness of solid wood, all firmly bolted and barred together - the whole being secured and steadied by strong iron braces and bolts, running crosswise as well as fore-and aft."

The iron plating that covered this wooden roof of the Virginia was manufactured at the Tredegar Iron Works, owned by Joseph Reed Anderson. Although Mallory wanted 3-inch-thick plating, none appears to have been available throughout the Confederacy. The original contract specified that the foundry at Tredegar roll 1-inch-

Based on inaccurate sketches supplied by "a mechanic" who came north under a flag of truce, this engraving of the Virginia published in Harper's Weekly on November 2,1861, indicates the basic design of the vessel, but shows it sitting too high in the water and with the pilothouse aft of the smoke stack instead of at the bow. (Author's collection)

thick iron plates, but several tests conducted by Brooke at Jamestown Island, Virginia, indicated that armor of these dimensions would provide inadequate protection. Hence, work on the vessel was delayed while the Iron Works halted production in order to alter their machinery to accommodate the thicker metal. Eventually, a 2-inch-thick underlayer of iron plate measuring 8 feet long by 3'/2 feet wide was placed horizontally on the roof of the Virginia, while an outer layer of the same dimensions ran vertically to its pitch - the whole being 4 inches thick. This was bolted through the woodwork and riveted inside.

Thus armored, the ship was provided with a cast-iron, wedge-shaped ram weighing 1,500 pounds that projected 4 feet from her bow. Although ramming as a decisive offensive tactic had been virtually abandoned with the rise of large sailing ships mounting artillery toward the end of the medieval period, the advent of steam power had made this battlefield technique once again a viable strategy. Suggested as an afterthought by Stephen Mallory, who likened ramming to a "bayonet charge of infantry," the ram fitted aboard the Virginiavras, designed to protrude 3 feet from her prow. Bolted to the bow's stern head, and further secured by iron braces, it was unfortunately poorly mounted. While hammering the bolts that secured it to the vessel, a missed stroke by one of the local Gosport blacksmiths charged with its manufacture badly cracked one of the flanges holding it in place. Although it was apparent that the ram was improperly mounted, nothing was done to correct the problem. This weakness was also to have important consequences during the events of March 8-9, 1862, in Hampton Roads.

The pilothouse was forward of the single smokestack and was covered with the same thickness of iron as the sides of the ship. According to Master's Mate William A. Abbott, USN, who gathered information while imprisoned in Richmond, the helmsman aboard the Virginia peered through four separate grills shaped like "bull's eyes." The intervening space, or "spar deck," created on top of the casemate was grated with a 2 x 2-inch grille to provide ventilation to the gun deck. Access to the spar deck was provided by three grille hatchways with pivot shutter closures, one forward and one aft of the smokestack, and a third at midship. These were positioned directly over three hatches of similar construction in the gun deck, which facilitated the passage of ammunition, coal, and other supplies directly into the vessel. Lanterns were hung along the gun and orlop decks to provide lighting.

On February 15, 1862, Flag Officer French Forrest, commanding the Gosport Navy Yard, wrote to Porter regarding the possibility oi placing "two small, light boats, hung at davits" on the sloping sides towards the stern of the Virginia to serve as lifeboats, should the vessel sink. These were in place before the vessel embarked on her maiden voyage into Hampton Roads.

The ten-gun battery aboard Virginia consisted of four single-banded Brooke rifled cannon, designed by ship designer John M. Brooke, and six 9in. Dahlgren smoothbores, two of which were converted to fire hot shot. Two of the Brooke rifles, one each at bow and stern on pivoting carriages, were 7in., of 14,500 pounds. These pieces were converted from 9in. Dahlgrens and were bored to 7 inches, and rifled and banded. The other two rifles were 6.4in. of 9,000 pounds, on two-wheeled Marsilly

This more accurate wash drawing of the Virginia produced in 1898 by Clary Ray shows the pilothouse in the correct place at the bows, and superstructure in place, including metal frame work with canvas awning which could offer protection from the elements. (Courtesy of the US Navy Art Collection, Washington, DC)

carriages — one on each broadside abaft the smokestack. These guns were cast at the Tredegar Iron Works. Making up the remainder of the ship's broadside batteries, the 9in. Dahlgren smoothbores on Marsilly carriages were some of those captured at the Gosport Navy Yard. The Dahlgren gun had been developed for the USN by Rear Admiral John A. Dahlgren. Based on the shell gun invented by the French Admiral Henri-Joseph Paixhans in 1823, the improved American weapon was capable of firing round shot as well as shells. The two 9in. Dahlgren smoothbores forward of the smokestack were modified to fire hot shot heated in the boilers below. The ammunition taken onboard for the other cannon consisted of explosive shells and canister, which was effective against wooden ships, but would prove inadequate against another ironclad, which the Virginia faced on March 9, 1862.

Accommodation for the ship's complement of 320 officers and men appears to have been primitive. The officers were provided with temporary cabins below decks toward the bow and above the coal bunker, the partitions of which were taken down when the vessel was cleared for action. The men probably slung hammocks, or slept on the floor, along the gun or orlop decks. The ship's galley was aft of midship and located next to the magazine. According to Lieutenant Catesby ap R. Jones, Executive Officer of the Virginia, she was "badly ventilated, very uncomfortable, and very unhealthy." While the vessel remained at dock in Gosport, there was "an average of fifty or sixty [men] at the hospital, in addition to the sick list on board."

Once completed, the Virginia weighed 3,200 tons and measured 262 feet from bow to stern with a 51-foot 4-inch beam, and when fully armed sat about 21 feet deep in the water. As the cost of replacement was beyond the reach of the Confederacy, the condemned engines of the Merrimack provided the motive power for the converted vessel. These consisted of two horizontal, double piston rod, condensing engines fed by four boilers with 16 furnaces, which generated 1,200 horsepower and a speed of 9 knots. The steering chain mechanism was protected at the stern by an iron cover that was to prove ineffective in battle. The twin-bladed screw propeller was patterned on that designed by marine engineer Denis Griffiths and was the same type as that used on the British warship Warrior.

This more accurate wash drawing of the Virginia produced in 1898 by Clary Ray shows the pilothouse in the correct place at the bows, and superstructure in place, including metal frame work with canvas awning which could offer protection from the elements. (Courtesy of the US Navy Art Collection, Washington, DC)

Key		15.	Lifeboat	30.	Two horizontal back-acting
1.	Cast-iron ram measuring	16.	Main staff flying Confederate		engines, two cylinders,
	4 feet in length and		ensign		?2 inches in diameter, with
	weighing 1,500 lbs	1?.	Gun 10: Stern Pin. Brooke		3-foot stroke
2.	Bow-deck covered over with		rifle on pivot carriage	31.	Guns 4 and 5: 6.4in. Brooke
	1-inch thick iron plate with	18.	Stern covered over with		rifles on Marsilly carriages
	a rough-built wooden		1-inch thick iron plate	32.	Four Martin-type boilers with
	breakwater on top	19.	Iron chain cover		average steam pressure of
3.	Pilothouse with grills shaped	20.	Steering chain mechanism		18 pounds
	like bull's eyes	21.	Rudder	33.	Coal bunker
4.	Spar deck covered with iron	22.	Twin-bladed Griffiths pattern	34.	Locations of temporary
	grating		propeller		cabins for officers
5.	Chimney from stove	23.	Copper-sheathed lower hull		(partitions cleared for
6.	Iron hand rail	24.	One-inch thick iron plates		action)
?.	Ventilator		extending 3 feet below	35.	Gun deck
8.	Smokestack		waterline	36.	Guns 2 and 3: 9in. Dahlgren
9.	Wire braces for smokestack	25.	Outer layer of 6-inch wide,		smoothbores on Marsilly
10.	Hatches with gratings and		2-inch thick rolled iron plate		carriages, modified for hot
	stairways		(vertical)		shot
11.	Powder magazine	26.	Outer layer of 6-inch wide,	3?.	Elliptical gun ports, four to a
12.	Guns 6 through to 9: 9in.		2-inch thick rolled iron plate		side, and three to an end
	Dahlgren smoothbores on		(horizontal)		without any shutters
	Marsilly carriages	2?.	Propeller shaft	38.	Gun 1: Bow ?in. Brooke rifle
13.	Shell magazine	28.	Bilge		on pivot carriage
14.	Dry provisions store	29.	Lower, or orlop, deck	39.	Anchor

Throughout summer 1861, Southern newspaper reporters as well as the general public visited the Gosport Navy Yard to observe the work on the Merrimack. As early as June 29, the Richmond Daily Dispatch reported that the vessel was being "fitted for service as a floating battery." The Reverend J. J. Nicholson was permitted aboard to view the ironclad in dry dock during August and reported to the Mobile Tribune, "I was on the celebrated Merrimac... . She is turned into a sort of terripin [sic], only with a sharper back... . Do you suppose a cannonball can have the courage to go through all that."

Not everyone believed the Virginia would be successful. In a private letter to a friend after the success of March 9, 1862, Chief Engineer Porter stated, "Hundreds — I may say thousands — asserted she would never float. Some said she would turn bottom side up; others said the crew would suffocate; but the most wise said the concussion and report of the guns would deafen the men. Some said she would not steer, and public opinion generally about here said she would never come out of dock." The North, however, took the Confederate ironclad more seriously. On October 6, 1861, Major General John E. Wool, commanding the Department of Virginia with headquarters at

Fort Monroe, advised Winfield Scott that the Confederate ironclad, still referred to as Merrimack, was being "constructed to resist cannon shot." On October 17, 1861, Flag Officer L. M. Goldsborough, commanding the Atlantic Blockading Squadron, reported that he had received "reliable information with regard to the preparation of the Merrimack for an attack on Newport News and these roads." He added that he felt "quite satisfied that unless her stability be compromised by her heavy top works of wood and iron, and her heavy weight of batteries, she will, in all probability, prove to be exceedingly formidable." A correspondent of the New York Times of October 28, 1861, reported from aboard the steamship Atlantic that "it had not been altogether unanticipated that the iron-clad Merrimac might at any moment round the sandy promontory and escape to sea.... I have heard grave fears expressed for the safety of the fleet as it lies at anchor here. Should the rebels be desperate enough for the undertaking, there is no doubt that a vessel such as the Merrimac is said to be could do immense injury to these unprotected transports. What could prevent her coming down some moonlight night and pouring a few broadsides of shells into our midst? The vessels are so numerous and close together that the havoc in such a case would be enormous."

THE MONITOR

As work proceeded on the Virginia, it became evident to the North that if the Confederacy succeeded in launching its vessel, there was not a Union ship that could stand up to her. Thus, the US Congress hastily made preparations to build its own ironclad. A board was established to investigate the possibility of completing the Stevens Battery, which still languished on the builders' stocks. Captain Charles Henry Davis, USN, was sent to inspect the vessel, but the report of the board was not published until the end of 1861, by which time other plans were afoot. In July an extra session of Congress had been declared by President Lincoln, and on August 3 legislation was approved to provide money for the construction of "one or more steel or iron-clad ships" for the Navy. The new law called for an examining board of three experienced naval officers to review the proposals and specifications that would be submitted in response to a printed public notice for such ships, which appeared in the press five days later. Vessels were to be "of sufficient capacity to carry an armament of one hundred and twenty tons, with a complement of three hundred men, and provisions for sixty days, with coal for eight days' steaming, and not to draw exceeding sixteen feet water." Applicants were advised that "Drawings of hull and machinery, with estimates of cost and speed, must be submitted." Those intending to apply had until August 15 to notify the Navy Department of their intentions, and plans and specifications were to be submitted with 25 days.

Established on August 8, 1861, the examining committee, known as the Ironclad Board, consisted of Commodore Joseph Smith, Commodore Hiram Paulding, and Commander Charles Davis. By September 16 these officers had examined proposals for at least 17 ships and recommended building three - the Galena, New Ironsides, and

Monitor. With convex, or "tumblehome," sides protected by interlocking iron bars, the Galena was designed by Samuel Pook for C. H. Bushnell and Company of New Haven, Connecticut, and would prove vulnerable to plunging fire at right angles when in action. Stripped of her ironcladding in 1863, she served the rest of the war as a wooden screw sloop. The New Ironsides, a casemated ironclad based on the French ship Gloire and proposed by Merrick and Sons of Philadelphia, provided successful Civil War service, but would be destroyed by fire in 1866. The first of a revolutionary class of ironclad battleship, the Ericsson Steam Battery, later in January 1862 named the Monitor, was a radical departure from conventional naval architecture. Although initially rejected as suitable only for inland waters, she was chosen for construction only after designer John Ericsson himself made a direct appeal and presentation to the Ironclad Board. At the same time, Lincoln backed the choice, stating, "All I have to say is what the girl said when she stuck her foot in the stocking. It strikes me there's something in it."

Swedish-born John Ericsson developed his engineering career from an early age. At age 13 he produced drawings for the Gota Canal and later served in the engineer corps of the Swedish Army from 1816 through 1826. Following a move to Britain, he formed a partnership with John Braithwaite and produced Novelty, one of the steam locomotive entries for the RainhillTrials of 1829, an English competition in the early days of steam locomotion railways. Turning next to shipbuilding, he developed a successful screw propeller but, disappointed with the lack of support he received in Britain, migrated to the United States in 1839. With the backing of Captain Robert Stockton, a wealthy and influential naval officer from New Jersey, he designed and developed the USS Princeton, the USN's first metal-hulled, screw-propelled warship and the first to have its engines below the waterline. Unfortunately, a powerful 12in. gun called "the Peacemaker," devised by Stockton and forming part of the vessel's battery, exploded during a demonstration for President John Tyler in February 1844, killing six people, including Secretary of State Abel P. Upshur and Secretary of the Navy Thomas Gilmer. During the ensuing crisis, Stockton used his influence in the

The examining board appointed to select the revolutionary Northern ironclad vessel on August 8, 1861, consisted of Commodore Joseph Smith, Chief of the Bureau of Yards and Docks (left), Commodore Hiram Paulding, who was responsible for the evacuation of the Norfolk Navy Yard in April 1861 (center), and Commander Charles Davis, who would be promoted to Flag Officer commanding the Mississippi flotilla in May 1862 (right). According to Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles, "All were officers of merit, but Commodore Smith, in addition to great nautical and civil experience possessed a singularly mechanical and practical mind. On him devolved, ultimately, the chief responsibility and supervision of the execution of the plans adopted." (Author's collection/Naval Historical Foundation photo NH 843?9-KN/courtesy of the US Navy Art Collection)

RIGHT

Photographed looking forward along the port side shortly after her action with Confederate batteries at Drewry's Bluff, on the James River, Virginia, on May 15, 1862, the USS Galena was unsuccessful as an ironclad as her "tumblehome" sides were vulnerable to plunging shots. (Naval Historical Foundation photo NH 53984)

This engraving of USS New Ironsides being fitted out a Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in mld-1862 was published in Harper's Weekly on August 23,1862. This vessel joined the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron in January 1863. For the next year, she operated in support of the blockade of Charleston, South Carolina, and took part in several attacks on the Confederate fortifications defending that city. Her broadside battery of eight heavy guns on each side, coupled with her iron protection, made her a valuable ship for bombardment purposes during the Civil War. [Author's collection)

nation's capital to get the blame for the accident placed on Ericsson, whose name was anathema during much of the remainder of the antebellum period.

Thus, when Ericssons ironclad design was finally accepted by the board in 1861, it faced opposition from many naval officers and the press, who were doubtful that a semi-submerged ironclad warship could float, let alone put to sea. Northern newspapers began printing reports about "Ericssons Folly" and how this "cheese box on a raft" would slide to the bottom of New York City's East River upon launching. Ericsson himself was lamented as an "incapable schemer" and condemned for "the sin of wasting the resources of the country." Given the situation, Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles hedged his bets and withheld 25 percent of the cost of the vessel until its captain had pronounced her a seaworthy and effective warship. Thus, when the Monitor steamed off toward her fateful encounter with the Virginia in March 1862, she was still partly owned by her builders.

In spite of contemporary criticism, work on the Ericsson "Steam Battery" went ahead with all haste. As US navy yards were not fully equipped to build ironclad warships in 1861, the hull of the vessel was built under contract with the private shipyard owned by the

Continental Iron Works at Green Point, Long Island, New York. Fabrication of her engines was delegated to Delamater & Co., New York City, and the building of her turret was assigned to the Novelty Iron Works, also of New York City.

Construction began on October 25, 1861, and was completed in just 118 days at a cost of only $275,000. She was launched January 30 and commissioned February 25, 1862.

Central to the design of the vessel was a 120-ton revolving turret containing two smoothbore guns. Twenty feet in diameter and 9 feet high, the turret was formed of rolled 1-inch-thick iron plates bolted together to the thickness of 8 inches around an iron skeleton. When in its "stowed" position, the turret rested on a brass ring set in the deck. During battle stations, it was raised, or "keyed up." Integral to the forward side ol the midships bulkhead was a Y-shaped structure called the turret support truss, which helped displace the weight of the turret resting on the deck above. In the center of the truss stood the turret shaft, which the crew raised into position by pulling a large wedge underneath. As a large nut was tightened on the end of the wedge, the shaft slowly rose up to connect with the yoke on the main beam at the bottom of the turret. Once the shaft was in place, a member of the gun crew turned a control wheel, which increased the steam pressure to the auxiliary steam engines and put the turret in motion. It took about 30 seconds to rotate it through 360 degrees.

Designed to house two XV-inch muzzle-loading Dahlgren smoothbores, only XI-inch pieces were available when the time came to mount the guns in the turret. Weighing nearly 9 tons each and firing solid shot weighing 140 pounds, these were mounted on specially designed "friction carriages" that brought the gun to a stop resting on the rear end of the chassis when fired. On recoil, the cannons cleared the carriage with only about 2 inches to spare. The elongated gun port openings were protected by thick iron port stoppers, or pendulums, that hung from the overhead. These were swung out of the way when the cannon was run out for firing and dropped

The plans to build the "Ericsson Battery," later Known as the Monitor, were not adopted by the Ironclad Board until a direct appeal and presentation was made by the Swedish inventor John Ericsson himself and the approval of President Abraham Lincoln was given. This carte de visite photograph of Ericsson was produced in 1862. (Naval Historical Foundation photo NH 66618)

The plans to build the "Ericsson Battery," later Known as the Monitor, were not adopted by the Ironclad Board until a direct appeal and presentation was made by the Swedish inventor John Ericsson himself and the approval of President Abraham Lincoln was given. This carte de visite photograph of Ericsson was produced in 1862. (Naval Historical Foundation photo NH 66618)

This contemporary engraving showing the launch of the USS Monitor at the Continental Iron Works at Green Point, New York, on January 30, 1862, is inaccurate as the turret was fitted after she was launched. (Monitor Collection, NOAA)

Used as a front-page illustration for Harper's Weekly, on March 22,1862, this engraving shows USS Monitor with turret complete with metal framework for the canopy designed to protect from the elements. Also note the pilothouse of lower dimensions with sloping sides that replaced the original one immediately after the battle at Hampton Roads, plus the heightened smokestack to prevent waves from dousing her engines. (Author's collection]

back into place on recoil to protect the gun crew from enemy fire. Because of the confined space inside the turret, each port stopper had a hole through its center to permit the handles of the gun tools to pass, allowing them to protrude outside the turret when the guns were being loaded. The loading implements hung from the overhead when not in use.

On January 27, 1862, Lieutenant John L. Worden, commanding the Monitor, reported to Secretary of the Navy Welles, "In estimating the number of her crew, I allowed 15 men and a quarter gunner for the two guns, 11 men for the powder division, and 1 for the wheel, which I deem ample for the efficient working of her guns in action. That would leave 12 men (including those available in the engineer's department) to supply deficiencies at the guns, caused by sickness or casualties."

A limited number of nonexploding solid shot, made at the Novelty Iron Works, was stowed along the base of the turret beside each of the guns. The turret floor had two hatches, one beside each gun, for access to the berth deck below. When the guns were in action, crew members would pass powder and exploding shells up to the turret. Two ladders in the turret led up to the roof, where the ship's officers gathered whenever the vessel was under way. The roof was covered with perforated plate that permitted smoke and fumes to escape when the guns were in action and a limited amount of fresh air at other times. To keep out rain and provide shade on hot days, the turret was fitted with an awning or canopy supported by a wooden center pole and stanchions around its edge. When tinder way and in foul weather, the crew removed the awning structure and battened down all the hatches. The only access to the outside of the vessel was from the turret roof via a removable iron ladder dangled over the side for the men to climb down to the deck.

Ericsson originally intended that the pilothouse, or wheelhouse, should be connected to the gun turret of the Monitor, but the exigencies of time and amount of work involved dictated otherwise. Thus the armored pilothouse was located toward the bows and accessed through a hatch in the floor. This structure was approximately 4 feet by 5 feet and rose 4 feet above the deck. It was constructed of iron "logs" measuring 9 by 12 inches thick that were bolted to oak beams below the deck, and 14-inch gaps between the logs offered the only views out in all four directions. The

Armored plating for monitors was given a smooth finish by machines such as the Double Planer seen in the engraving published in the Scientific American on October 25, 1862. Invented by T. F Rowland of Brooklyn, this machinery was kept busy building the Union ironclad fleet at the Continental Iron Works, New York, throughout the Civil War. (Author's collection)

cramped interior of the pilothouse measured only 45 by 35 inches, not including the area consumed by the ship's wheel, by means of which the quartermaster steered the vessel, while the pilot watched the waters. The captain also usually crowded into the pilothouse when the vessel was underway. Communication between the pilothouse and the gun turret was maintained via a speaking tube, which became disconnected early in the action on March 9, 1862. Badly damaged and restricting the view of the ship's guns during the battle of Hampton Roads, the pilothouse was lowered and modified by the addition of sloping sides. The navigation equipment used on the Monitor remains a mystery. A historical reference mentions "adjustments" to the ship's compass, but the iron mass of the vessel would have greatly affected such a small instrument.

The hull of the Monitor was constructed in two parts, with the upper section in the form of a flat-bottomed scow, with sharp ends and vertical sides, 5 feet deep, 174 feet long, and 41 feet 4 inches wide. The sides consisted of 30-inch-thick solid oak covered by 1 -inch rolled iron plates to the thickness of 6 inches. The upper surface, or "deck," was protected by two layers of '/^-inch-thick plates laid over the deck beams, which later proved vulnerable to plunging fire from fortifications.

The central portion of the bottom of the upper hull was cut out for a length of 124 feet and a width of 34 feet, to locate with the lower section, which was attached to the bottom of the scow and which extended down with inclined sides to a depth of 7 feet 6 inches. The lower section consisted of Vi-inch-thick iron plates bolted together over a wooden frame. Fully fitted out, the vessel had a very shallow draft of only 10 feet 6 inches, and its deck reached barely 18 inches above waterline. The only permanent features seen above the deck were gun turret amidships and the armored pilothouse near the bow. Ericsson designed all other features of the ship, including smoke boxes, ventilator boxes, and bollards, to be removed prior to going into combat. Being under the projecting end of the upper section of the vessel, the screw propeller and rudder of the Monitor were securely protected from shot.

The lower deck of the Monitor was divided in two by a midship structural bulkhead, forward of which lay the berth deck, officers' quarters, magazine, and shell room. An open area beneath the turret measuring about 27 feet long by 18 feet wide,

The engine register of the Monitor was recovered from the wreck site off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, in 2001 and is one of only two artifacts recovered from the wreck bearing the name of the vessel so far. Small metal disks seen in the six small apertures slowly clicked over to show the engineer how many hours the ship's engine had been working for. (Courtesy of The Mariners' Museum)

The engine register of the Monitor was recovered from the wreck site off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, in 2001 and is one of only two artifacts recovered from the wreck bearing the name of the vessel so far. Small metal disks seen in the six small apertures slowly clicked over to show the engineer how many hours the ship's engine had been working for. (Courtesy of The Mariners' Museum)

t In- berth deck o He red sleeping space for the 48 enlisted men and a few of the unlucky junior officers that made up the crew. Although the Navy expected enlisted men to sleep in hammocks slung from poles inserted into sockets ^-v in the wooden deck overhead, most men preferred to spread their hammock on the wooden deck. The berth deck was crowded and provided little if any privacy. Ladders led up into the turret and onto the deck through the officer's hatch. All lighting on the berth deck was artificial, and the walls were painted white to help reflect the flickering glow of lanterns.

The powder magazine was situated on the starboard side of the berth deck, just forward of the midships bulkhead. Measuring 9 feet square, it was walled with iron and lined on the inside with lead to prevent any possibility of sparks. This provided storage for "loose" powder, cartridges, and exploding shells, which were held in specially designed copper tanks contoured to fit the shelves along the walls. A small number of "fixed" cartridges were kept filled and ready for use. To further prevent any chance of accidental explosion in the magazine, a "light room" was attached to the outside of the room, from which illumination from an oil lamp spilled into the magazine through a thick glass porthole. Also, the foyer-style entrance was secured with a heavy iron door. When left ajar during action, a thick canvas curtain covered the doorway. In case of fire below decks, the magazine could be flooded by opening a sea cock. The iron-walled shell room was located on the port side opposite the magazine. This held exploding projectiles, fuses, and cannon primers. Nonexploding cannonballs lay at the center of the berth deck, ready to be hoisted up to the guns, as well as in racks in the turret. A wooden bulkhead with a door in the center separated the officers' quarters and wardroom from the berth deck. The officers took their meals and socialized in the wardroom, where furnishings included an oak table, hardwood chairs, lanterns, and shelves. Blowers at the stern of the vessel

1. Rudder

2. Propeller well and hatch

3. Ventilator

4. Blower engine (on both sides)

5. Coal bunker bulkheads

6. Turret hatch (one of two)

?. Turret frame stanchions (2.5 inches)

8. Gun carriage rails

9. Turret support beams

10. Turret traverse mechanism

11. Store rooms

12. Glass deck lights (covered when cleared for action)

13. Captain's cabin (state room on starboard side]

14. Deck plating

15. Boatswain's locker and storage (both sides)

16. Anchor

17. Hand-powdered windlass

18. Observation slit

19. Ship's wheel

20. Pilot house

21. Tiller actuating ropes

22. Officers'cabins

23. Wardroom

24. Timber deck beams

25. Berth deck (crews quarters)

26. Deck beams supports and bracings

2?. Main bulkhead

28. 11-in. Dahlgren smoothbores

29. Main turret beam

30. Hull armor

32. Engine bulkheads

33. Condenser (starboard side only)

34. Engine

35. Steam discharge pipes and stop valves

ventilated both the berth deck and the wardroom through perforated floor beams, while a radiator heated by the ship's boilers warmed the area in cold weather. Berthing for eight officers with four on either side lay to the outboard sides of the wardroom. The four cabins lining the wardroom were 6 feet long by 4 feet wide, while the other four were almost twice as wide, although the rising sides of the hull took up the added width. These were well furnished with black walnut berth, drawers, and closet. The captain's cabin and stateroom lay forward of the wardroom. Located on the starboard side, the cabin was 16 feet square and similarly furnished, with the added luxury of having its own flushing head. Of the same dimensions, the captain's stateroom was across a narrow passageway from the captain's cabin. Here the captain entertained important visitors and conducted day-to-day business. The boatswain's locker and storage were located either side of the captain's quarters. A passageway between the captain's rooms led to the chain locker in the bows of the ship. The anchor hoisting mechanism hung in the overhead, just forward of the ladder leading up to the pilothouse. Located below deck, the anchor could be raised or lowered at will without exposing crew members to the elements or enemy fire.

The area aft of the midship bulkhead contained the machinery of the vessel, plus the ship's galley and remaining heads. Two large, oval iron hatchways provided access to this area. When closed, these hatches created an airtight seal necessary to maintain the draft to the boilers provided by the belt-driven blowers in the engine room. The fire risk in this part of the ship was great, so the builders installed diamond-patterned, cast-iron floor plates throughout the engineering and galley areas. The first area aft of the bulkhead was the ship's galley. A large iron stove backed on to the boilers, while racks and shelves held cookware and utensils. The galley also held the "water closets." Two below-waterline flushing heads were situated on the starboard side for the enlisted men, while a single head for the officers was located on the port side. The Monitor was one of the first vessels credited with utilizing below-waterline flushing toilets, the operation of which took some getting used to. On one occasion, the ship's surgeon operated the valves in the wrong order and was propelled off his seat by a jet of water. Behind the galley stove stood the ship's two Martin boilers. Designed and patented in 1856 by D. B. Martin, Engineer-in-Chief of the US Navy, they measured 14 by 9 feet and provided the steam necessary to operate all of the ship's various engines and pumps. The screw was turned by two "vibrating side-lever" engines designed by Ericsson himself. Many ships' engines of the time had pistons that operated in a vertical motion, which occupied a lot of space and made them vulnerable to enemy fire because they were partially above the waterline. By contract, the 30-ton, 400-horsepower engines aboard Ericsson's vessel had pistons that moved horizontally, which reduced their height and allowed them to be mounted below the waterline and behind the ship's protective armor. A "rock shaft" lay on each side of these engines, which was connected to the piston trunk by a short arm. At the aft end of the rock shafts, arms were attached to the propeller shaft via connecting rods. As the pistons slid back and forth, the rocking motion translated into rotation at the screw shaft. The engine itself stood on a raised platform accessed via a set of stairs on the starboard side. From this area, the engineering crew had access to all moving parts of the main engine, which had to be well lubricated. At the back of the engine was the valve chest, which was the operational center for the main machinery. Using a series of levers, cranks, and wheels, crewmen worked the vibrating side-lever engine at the behest of the captain.

Two of the vessel's bilge pumps, capable of removing 2,500 gallons per minute, were located behind the valve chest. Ericsson also equipped the ship with a centrifugal Worthington bilge pump that could remove 3,500 gallons per minute. The air blower drive pumps providing ventilation were mounted floor-to-ceiling at the outboard sides of the fire room. The small steam engines drove the large blowers with thick leather belts.

The rest of the port and starboard sides aft of the boilers were partitioned for the ship's coal bunkers. A narrow passageway about 2 feet wide led between the boilers and the coal bunkers. In heavy seas, crew members had to be sure-footed when negotiating this walkway, as one misplaced step could land them against the side of a scalding hot boiler.

Conditions below deck were generally deplorable during the summer months when temperatures neared 100°F in the berthing areas, even with the vessel anchored in the shade. During June and July, temperatures in the galley could reach 130°F on an almost daily basis, while in the engine room they approached an unbearable 150°F. Indeed, Paymaster William Frederick Keeler found service in the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron aboard the gunboat USS Florida in 1863 "very pleasant, roomy and comfortable" compared with being "cabined, cribbed, and confined" aboard the Monitor.

This drawing shows the deck plan and side elevation of the USS Monitor as produced by John Ericsson in 1862. (US National Archives 783889)

Based on a series of sketches produced by Theodore R. Davis, these engravings showing the interior of the Monitor were published in Harper's Weekly on April 12,1862. Although partly inaccurate, they were approved by the ship's officers, and offer a valuable insight of life aboard the vessel. (1) A much over-sized view of the interior of the pilothouse with quartermaster at the ship's wheel and an officer standing by. Note the viewing slits and speaking tubes at right, which malfunctioned during the battle of Hampton Roads. (2) Supposedly looking fore and aft, this view of the berth deck features the ladders giving access to the turret and solid shot stored in the center of the deck. (3) Located immediately aft of the midship structural bulkhead, the ship's galley is seen with oval iron hatchways at right and turret shaft mechanism overhead. This view is inaccurate as the stove should have been shown backing on to the ship's boilers at left. (4) The captain's cabin was lined and furnished with black walnut and elegantly furnished with table and chairs. (5) The wardroom provided a communal area for the officers, with doors either side leading to their cabins. (6) The engineer officer and assistants tending one of the two Martin boilers and vibrating side-lever engines. (Author's collection)

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